Historical perspective of modes of construction of buildings free essay sample

The earliest large-scale buildings for which evidence survives have been found in ancient Mesopotamia. The smaller dwellings only survive in traces of foundations, but the later civilisations built very sizeable structures in the forms of palaces, temples and ziggurats and took particular care to build them out of materials that last, which has ensured that very considerable parts have remained intact. Major technical achievement is evidenced by the construction of great cities such as Uruk and Ur. The Ziggurat of Ur is an outstanding building of the period, despite major reconstruction work. Another fine example is the ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil in modern Iran. MATERIALS The chief building material was the mud brick, formed in wooden moulds. Bricks varied widely in size and format from small bricks that could be lifted in one hand to ones as big as large paving slabs. Rectangular and square bricks were both common. They were laid in virtually every bonding pattern imaginable and used with considerable sophistication. Drawings survive on clay tablets from later periods showing that buildings were set out on brick modules. By 3500 BC, bricks were also being fired and surviving records show a very complex division of labour into separate tasks and trades. Life in general was governed by complex ritual and this extended to rituals for setting-out buildings and moulding the first bricks. Contrary to popular belief the arch was not invented by the Romans, but was used in these civilizations. The later Mesopotamian civilizations, particularly Babylon and thence Susa, developed glazed brickwork to a very high degree, decorating the interiors and exteriors of their buildings with glazed brick reliefs, examples of which survive in the Tehran archaeological museum, the Louvre Museum in Paris and the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. CONSTRUCTION IN ANCIENT GREECE The ancient Greeks, like the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians, tended to build most of their common buildings out of mud brick, leaving no record behind them. However very many structures do survive, some of which are in a very good state of repair, although some have been partly reconstructed or re-erected in the modern era. The most dramatic are the Greek Temples. No timber structures survive (roofs, floors etc. ), so our knowledge of how these were put together is purely conjectural. The spans are, in the main, limited and suggest very simple beam and post structures spanning stone walls. Before 650 B. C. E. the now famous ancient Greek temples were built of wood, but after this date began to be built of stone. The process of a timber structure being repeated in stone is called petrification or petrified carpentry. Fire clay was mainly restricted to roofing tiles and associated decorations, but these were quite elaborate. Fired bricks were not commonly employed. Very prominent buildings were roofed in stone tiles, which mimicked the form of their terracotta counterparts. While later cultures tended to construct their stone buildings with thin skins of finished stones over rubble cores, the Greeks tended to build out of large cut blocks, joined with metal cramps. This was a slow, expensive and laborious process which limited the number of buildings that could be constructed. The metal cramps often failed through corrosion. Building structures used a simple beam and column system without vaults or arches, which based strict limits on the spans that could achieved. However, the Greeks did construct Arch Bridges. Greek mathematics was technically advanced and we know for certain that they employed and understood the principles of pulleys, which would have enabled them to build jibs and cranes to lift heavy stonework to the upper parts of buildings. Their surveying skills were exceptional, enabling them to set out the incredibly exact optical corrections of buildings like the Parthenon, although the methods used remain a mystery. Simpler decoration, such as fluting on columns, was simply left until the drums of the columns were cut in place. The ancient Greeks never developed the strong mortars which became an important feature of Roman construction. Design of Assyrian buildings, fortifications and temples Tell Asmar Standing man votive sculpture 2750-2600 B. C The plans of all the Assyrian buildings are rectangular, and we know that long ago, as now, the Eastern architects used this outline almost invariably, and upon it reared some of the most lovely and varied forms ever devised. They gather over the angles by graceful curves, and on the basis of an ordinary square hall carry up a minaret or a dome, an octagon or a circle. That this was sometimes done in Assyria is shown by the sculptures. Slabs from Kouyunjik show domes of varied form, and tower-like structures, each rising from a square base. The resemblance between the ancient form of the dome and those still used in the Assyrian villages is very striking. Whether sloping roofs were used is uncertain. Mr. Bonomi believes that they were, and a few sculptures seem to support his view. Of the private houses nothing, of course, remains; but they are represented on the slabs as being of several stories in height, the ground floor as usual having only a door and no windows. All have flat roofs, and we gather from one of the bas-reliefs, which represents a town on fire, that these roofs were made, just as they now are, with thick layers of earth on strong beams. These roofs are well-nigh fireproof, and the flames are represented as stopped by them, and coming out of the windows. No remains of a window, or, so far as we are aware, of an internal staircase, have been found. In the north wall of Nimroud fifty-eight towers have been traced, and at Kouyunjik there are large remains of three walls, the lower part being of stone, and the upper of sun-dried bricks. At Khorsabad there are the remains of a wall, still 40 feet (12 m) high, built of blocks of stone 3 to 4 feet (1. 2 m) thick, and the evidences wanting as to finishing of these is completely supplied by the sculptures, which show an extraordinary resemblance to medieval works of the same class. Tier upon tier of walls are represented, enclosing a great tower or keep in the centre. The entrances are great arched gateways flanked by square towers. These and the other towers have overhanging parapets just like the mediaeval machicolations, and are finished at top with battlements, remains of which have been found at Nimroud and Kouyunjik, and at Kale Shortage, the supposed capital of Assyria before Nineveh. But in Chaldea there are some enormous masses of ruins, evidently remains of the vast mounds which formed the substructure of their temples. The grandest of all these and the most interesting is the temple of Nuba at Borsippa (now Birs Nimrod), near Babylon, which has been identified as the temple of the Seven Spheres. This was reconstructed by Nebuchadnezzar, as appears by a well-known inscription. Another example is at Muggier, which was 198 feet (60 m) by 133 feet (41 m) at the base, and is even now 70 feet (21 m) high, and it is clear that both it and the Birs were built with diminishing stages, presenting a series of grand platforms, decreasing in length as they ascended, and leaving a comparatively small one at top for the temple cell. This has been found, it is supposed, at the Birs Nimroud, of vitrified brick made in ancient ovens. LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE Text sources indicate open space planning was a part of the city from the earliest times. The description of Uruk in the Epic of Gilgamesh tells of one third of that city set aside for orchards. Similar planned open space is found at the one fifth enclosure of Nippur. Another important landscape element was the vacant lot (Akkadian: kisubbu) which was used alternatively for agriculture and waste disposal. External to the city, Sumerian irrigation agriculture created some of the first garden forms in history. The garden (sar) was 144 square cubits with a perimeter canal. This form of the enclosed quadrangle was the basis for the later paradise gardens of Persia. In Mesopotamia, the use of fountains date as far back as the 3rd millennium BC. An early example is preserved in a carved Babylonian basin, dating back to circa 3000 B. C. , found at Girsu, Lagash. An ancient Assyrian fountain discovered in the gorge of the Comel River consists of basins cut in solid rock and descending in steps to the stream. The water was led from small conduits. CONSTRUCTION IN ANCIENT EGYPT As opposed to the cultures of ancient Mesopotamia which built in brick, the pharaohs of Egypt built huge structures in stone. The arid climate has preserved much of the ancient buildings. MATERIALS Adobe (sun-baked mud brick) construction was used for ancillary buildings and normal houses in ancient times and is still commonly used in rural Egypt. The hot, dry climate was ideal for mud-brick, which tends to wash away in the rain. The Ramesseum in Thebes, Egypt (Luxor) provides one of the finest examples of mud brick construction. Extensive storehouses with mud-brick vaults also survive, all constructed with sloping courses to avoid the need for formwork. The grandest buildings were constructed in stone, often from massive masonry blocks. The techniques used to move massive blocks used in pyramids and temples have been subject to extensive debate. Some authors have suggested that the larger blocks may not be cut stone but fabricated with concrete. TECHNOLOGY Although the Egyptians achieved extraordinary feats of engineering, they appear to have done so with relatively primitive technology. As far as is known they did not use wheels or pulleys. They transported massive stones over great distances using rollers, ropes and sledges hauled by large numbers of slaves. There are no surviving Egyptian manuals so there has been considerable speculation on how stones were lifted to great heights and obelisks erected. Most theories centre on the use of ramps. OUTSTANDING ACHIEVEMENTS The pyramids are chiefly impressive for their enormous size and the staggering manpower that must have been employed in their construction. The largest is the Great Pyramid of Giza which remained the tallest structure in the world for 3800 years (see List of tallest freestanding structures in the world). The engineering problems involved were chiefly to do with the transport of blocks, sometimes over long distances, their movement into location and exact alignment. It is now generally agreed that the skilled building workers were respected and well treated, but undoubtedly very large numbers of labourers were necessary to provide the brute force. The methods used in the construction of the pyramids have been the subject of considerable research and discussion. Pyramids at Giza. In the background from L to R: The Pyramid of Menkaure, The Pyramid of Khafre and The Great Pyramid of Khufu. Egyptian Architecture The first great civilization to emerge around the Mediterranean basin was that of Egypt (c. 3100-2040 BCE). In addition to its own written language, religion and dynastic ruling class, it developed a unique style of Egyptian architecture, largely consisting of massive burial chambers in the form of Pyramids (at Giza) and underground tombs (in the desolate Valley of the Kings, Luxor). Design was monumental but not architecturally complex and employed posts and lintels, rather than arches, although Egyptian expertise in stone had a strong influence on later Greek architecture. Famous examples of Egyptian pyramid architecture include: The Step Pyramid of Djoser (c. 2630 BCE) designed by Imhotep one of the greatest architects of the ancient world and The Great Pyramid at Giza (c. 2550 BCE), also called the Pyramid of Khufu or Pyramid of Cheops. Later, during the Middle and Late Kingdoms (c. 2040-300 CE), the Egyptians constructed a series of palaces at Karnak (eg. Temple of Amon, 1530 BCE onwards). These structures were adorned with a diverse range of artworks few of which survive including murals, panel paintings, sculptures, and metalwork, depicting various Gods, deities, rulers and symbolic animals in the unique Egyptian hieratic style of art, together with hieroglyphic inscriptions. ROMAN CONSTRUCTION In striking contrast to previous cultures, an enormous amount is known about Roman building construction. A very large amount survives, including complete intact buildings like the Pantheon, Rome and very well preserved ruins at Pompeii and Herculaneum. We also have the first surviving treatise on architecture by Vitruvius which includes extensive passages on construction techniques. Materials The great Roman breakthrough was the development of hydraulic lime mortar. Previous cultures had used lime mortars but by adding volcanic ash the Romans managed to make a mortar that would harden under water. This provided them with a cheap material for bulk walling. They used brick or stone to build the outer skins of the wall and then filled the cavity with massive amounts of concrete, effectively using the brickwork as permanent shuttering. The concrete, being formed of nothing more than rubble and mortar was cheap and very easy to produce, requiring relatively unskilled labour, enabling the Romans to build on an unprecedented scale. They not only used it for walls but also to form arches, barrel vaults and domes, which they built over huge spans. The Romans developed systems of hollow pots for making their domes and sophisticated heating and ventilation systems for their thermal baths. Glass was commonly used in windows. Organisation of labour The Romans had trade guilds. Most construction was done by slaves or freed men. The use of slave labour undoubtedly cut costs and was one of the reasons for the scale of some of the structures. The Romans placed a considerable emphasis in building their buildings extremely fast, usually within two years. For very large structures the only way this could be achieved was by the application of vast numbers of workers to the task. Technology Vitruvius gives details of many Roman machines. The Romans developed sophisticated timber cranes allowing them to lift considerable weights to great heights. The upper limit of lifting appears to have been about 100 tonnes. Trajans column in Rome contains some of the largest stones ever lifted in a Roman building, and engineers are still uncertain exactly how it was achieved. A list of the longest, highest and deepest Roman structures can be found in the List of ancient architectural records. Roman building ingenuity extended over bridges, aqueducts, and covered amphitheatres. Their sewerage and water-supply works were remarkable and some systems are still in operation today. The only aspect of Roman construction for which very little evidence survives is the form of timber roof structures, none of which seem to have survived intact. Possibly, triangulated roof trusses were built, this being the only conceivable way of constructing the immense spans achieved, the longest exceeding 30 metres. Aqueduct at Segovia, Spain. Roman Architecture Unlike the more creative and intellectual Greeks, the Romans were essentially practical people with a flair for engineering, construction and military matters. In their architecture, as in their art, they borrowed heavily from both the Etruscans (eg. in their use of hydraulics for swamp-clearing and in the construction of arches), and also the Greeks, whom they regarded as their superiors in all visual arts. However, without Roman art with its genius for copying and adapting Greek styles most of the artistic achievements of Greek antiquity would have been lost. Architectural Priorities of Ancient Rome Roman architecture served the needs of the Roman state, which was keen to impress, entertain and cater for a growing population in relatively confined urban areas. Drainage was a common problem, as was security. This, together with Romes growing desire to increase its power and majesty throughout Italy and beyond, required public buildings to be imposing, large-scale and highly functional. This is exemplified by Roman architectural achievements in drainage systems, aqueducts (eg. the aqueduct at Segovia, 100 CE, and over 11 aqueducts in the city of Rome itself, such as Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus), bridges (eg. the Pont du Gard) roads, municipal structures like public baths (eg. the Baths of Caracalla and the Baths of Diocletian), sports facilities and amphitheatres (eg. the Colosseum 72-80 CE), even central heating systems. Numerous temples and theatres were also built. Later, as their empire spread, the Roman architects seized the opportunity to create new towns from scratch, designing urban grid-plans based on two wide streets a north-south axis (the cardo) and an east-west axis (the decumanus). The town centre was located at the intersection of the two roads. They also built upwards; for example, Ostia, a rich port city near Rome, boasted a number of 5-storey apartment blocks. Architectural Advances: Arches Concrete Roman architecture was assisted by major advances in both design and new materials. Design was enhanced through architectural developments in the construction of arches and roof domes. Arches improved the efficiency and capability of bridges and aqueducts (fewer support columns were needed to support the structure), while domed roofs not only permitted the building of larger open areas under cover, but also lent the exterior an impressive appearance of grandeur and majesty, as in several important secular and Christian basilicas, like the Pantheon. Developments in materials were also crucial, as chronicled by the Roman architect Vitruvius (c. 78-10 BCE) in his book De Architectura. This is exemplified by the Roman invention of concrete (opus cementicium), a mixture of lime mortar, sand, water, and stones, in the 3rd century BCE. This exceptionally strong and convenient substitute for stone revolutionized Roman engineering and architecture. As tile-covered concrete began to replace marble as the main building material, architects could be more daring. Buildings were freed from the rectangular Greek design-plan (with its undomed roofs and lines of pillars supporting flat architraves) and became less geometric and more free-flowing. Like their Egyptian and the Greek predecessors, architects in ancient Rome embellished their public buildings with a wide range of artworks, including: Roman sculpture (especially reliefs, statues and busts of the Emperor), fresco murals, and mosaics. Famous Buildings of Ancient Rome Two of the greatest structures of Ancient Rome were the Colosseum (the elliptical Flavian amphitheatre in the centre of Rome) and Trajans Column (a monument to the Emperor Trajan). Situated to the east of the Roman Forum, the Colosseum took 8 years to build, had seating for 50,000 spectators. Historians and archeologists estimate that a staggering 500,000 people and over 1 million wild animals perished in the games at the Colosseum. Trajans Column, located close to the Quirinal Hill, north of the Roman Forum, was finished in 113 CE. It is renowned for its magnificent and highly detailed spiral bas relief sculpture, which circles the shaft of the monument 23 times, and narrates Trajans victory in the Dacian Wars. The shaft itself is made from 20 huge blocks of Carrara marble, each weighing about 40 tons. It stands about 30 metres in height and 4 metres in width. USING RELEVANT SKETCHES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, EXPLAIN HOW PEOPLE ACROSS THE CONTINENT OF THE GLOBE USE BUILDING ENVELOPE TO ACHIEVE INTERNAL COMFORT. A building envelope includes all the components that make up the shell or skin of the building. These components separate the exterior of the building from the interior, and are designed by the project architect or engineers to meet the needs of each individual application. The building envelope may also be defined as the components that separate conditioned areas from unconditioned space. Exterior or unheated living spaces are not included inside the envelope, while any living space that is equipped with heat or air conditioning would be included. The building envelope must be carefully designed with regard to climate, ventilation, and energy consumption within the structure. There are four basic functions of the building envelope. These include adding structural support, controlling moisture and humidity, regulating temperature, and controlling air pressure changes. By serving these different functions, the envelope also affects ventilation and energy use within the building. The envelope is made up of all of the exterior components of the building, including walls, roofing, foundations, windows, and doors. Finish materials like siding and decorative items are not usually considered a part of the envelope. Insulation, building paper, and other components aimed at controlling moisture and airflow are typically included in the building envelope design. Building envelopes are often characterized as tight or loose. A tight envelope is precisely constructed to allow relatively few air leaks. This often requires significant quantities of insulation, caulk, sealants, and energy-efficient windows to create a tight shell for the building. Loosely-constructed envelopes allow air to flow more freely from the exterior to interior spaces. A loose envelope may be created by design, or may be the result of poor construction techniques. Many experts debate the benefits of tight versus loose building envelopes. A tight envelope allows for a high level of control over indoor air quality, energy consumption, temperature, and humidity levels. It leads to fewer drafts and a more comfortable environment for occupants, and often results in less waste in heating and cooling costs. Tightly-designed envelopes also reduce the likelihood of mold or mildew caused by moisture infiltration, which may prolong the life of building components. At the same time, tighter buildings also limit how much natural ventilation can occur, which leads to more extensive mechanical ventilation requirements. A loosely-constructed building envelope allows natural air transfers to occur, which improves indoor air quality and often eliminates the need for mechanical ventilation. At the same time these looser buildings tend to be more drafty and uncomfortable, and can make it difficult to regulate temperature levels. There is an increased chance of moisture-related mold, and higher quantities of heated or cooled air are able to escape through leaks in the envelope. This can increase energy bills and negatively impact the environment by increasing greenhouse gas levels. The building envelope is the area that separates conditioned space from unconditioned space or outside air. In this picture, the building envelope is the area surrounded by the insulation. The code is only concerned with the building envelope.

How to Use a Sample Basic Scholarship Essay

How to Use a Sample Basic Scholarship EssayA sample basic scholarship essay is an important resource for those with very little knowledge about higher education and scholarship programs. A student can make use of these samples to find the best scholarship that fits their needs, or just learn more about a particular program so they can better choose a scholarship for themselves.While every student is not in the exact situation that you are in, you still want to know more about the different programs that are available. A sample basic scholarship essay will help you in finding the right scholarships for you. You can also use this resource to help get additional funding for other costs associated with your college education.Government grant money is available to most students who meet specific requirements. This scholarship money can be used for anything from student housing to personal expenses. The government actually offers several different forms of government grant money, including Social Security and educational grants.When it comes to Social Security money, students who have significant assets can qualify. To be eligible, you must have assets worth at least ten thousand dollars. This money does not come from the government but from the social security system. In order to qualify, you must fill out an application and submit it to the social security office.The financial aid office will examine your case to determine what kind of aid you are eligible for. For example, students who are financially stressed due to high tuition fees may be eligible for grants to pay for school. Students who need financial aid to pay for textbooks are also eligible.If you need extra money for books, do not think that the books are free. Most college textbooks cost a great deal of money, and there are fees associated with using the books. For this reason, students should be aware of any kind of book-related fees and how they can get money to cover them.Once you are certain that yo u are qualified for federal assistance, the next step is to apply for social security. Many students apply for this money online, which is a quick and easy process. It is even possible to apply for this money on your own and collect it when you get your first check in the mail.If you are attending a local college, the financial aid office in your area is where you should start. The office can provide you with the proper forms and information to fill out.

Affirmative Action Essays (2259 words) - , Term Papers

Affirmative Action As Nick Catoggio went to his mailbox, he knew that his acceptance letter from Harvard University had arrived. Although Nick was nervous, he knew that his hard work in high school had gained him admission into one of the world's most prestigious institutions of higher learning. Because of his grade point average of 4.0 in high school, his numerous extracurricular activities, and a combined score of 1440 on his SATs, Nick believed that he would almost be guaranteed admission to Harvard. When he opened the letter however, he was shattered when he read the words, "We regret to inform you ..." He immediately called his friend Richard Sahk, who had also applied, to tell him his news and to see if Richard had received his letter from Harvard. Richard said, "Yeah Nick, I got in!" Nick was astonished. Richard's GPA was only 3.7, and he receive a combined score of 1100 on his SATs. After a long pause he replied, "It's because I'm black, Nick," Richard felt bad for his friend. Both he and Nick had realized that he was accepted by Harvard because of his race. Nick was mad because he was qualified and didn't get in; Richard felt upset because he wasn't as qualified as Nick but was admitted because of his race. This is an anecdotal example of one of the many criticisms of affirmative action. In fact, the whole controversy over preferences based on race and gender has been debated ever since the Civil Rights Act was passed in 1964. I believe that Affirmative action should be discontinued, this program is a new kind of discrimination to counter the past discrimination and this defeats the whole idea of the program. Affirmative action is defined, as a program ensuring that a predetermined proportion of jobs or college admissions go to African Americans and presumably, other minorities and women as well (Woods 102). Also, James Q. Wilson in the winter 1996 issue of The New Republic takes affirmative action to mean the selecting of persons based on their group membership (23). Nicholas Lehman writes that affirmative action today refers to " stuff that helps black people." By this, he says that affirmative action today has come to mean everything from "preferential college admissions to the way news is covered to what's hung in museums to corporate promotional practices" (84). According to Nicholas Lehman, affirmative action started out as Executive Order 10925. Lyndon Johnson, the incoming vice President asked Hobart Taylor Jr., the lawyer son of one of his friends, to work on a draft of an executive order that would ban discriminatory hiring by Federal contractors. Taylor later said that he "was searching for something that would give a sense of positiveness to performance under executive order, and I was torn between the words 'positive action' and the words 'affirmative action.' . . . And I took 'affirmative action' because it was alliterative" (40). Even during Johnson's proposal of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the issue of racial quotas was controversial. Said then-Senator James Eastland of Mississippi, "... I know what will happen if the bill is passed. I know what will happen if there is a choice between hiring a white man or hiring a Negro both having equal qualifications. I know who will get the job. It will not be the white man" (Lehman 40). The people who seek to abolish affirmative action claim that more qualified students are being displaced by less-qualified students. But there are no more or less qualified students, only students who can benefit from attending a university such as Michigan get a chance, and no one knows in advance who they are. The opinions that accompany the various Supreme Court cases concerning affirmative action have been perplexing, and, at times, contradictory. Woods Geraldine referred to the opinions of the justices as pieces of a puzzle that no one, including the court itself, knows how to solve completely (65). This confusion is probably the result of disagreement among the justices. Many of the cases involving affirmative action have been decided by very close votes. Even when the justices vote the same way, their separate opinions often explain what they agreed for entirely different reasons. Let's take the example of the case, "The Regents of the University of California v. Bakke." On October 12, 1977, the Supreme Court was scheduled to hear case no.76-811. Both proponents and opponents of affirmative action waited to hear arguments about whether a white male, Allan Bakke, should be admitted to medical school at U.C.

Motherhood And Denial Of Female Perversion Social Work Essay Essays

Motherhood And Denial Of Female Perversion Social Work Essay Essays Motherhood And Denial Of Female Perversion Social Work Essay Essay Motherhood And Denial Of Female Perversion Social Work Essay Essay The idealization of maternity can take to the denial of female perversion. Pulling upon illustrations, critically measure this statement in relation to violent female parents. Pregnancy and maternity is a important portion of adult females s lives. In fact, maternity is a privilege that lone adult females can see. However, non all adult females experience fortunate about going female parents. Knowles and Cole ( 1990 ) suggest that there is an increasing figure of instances wherein soon-to-be female parents are non happy about their gestation either because of their current matrimonial relationship, the biological male parent of the kid is non mature plenty to supply emotional and fiscal assistance, or merely because they have negative past experiences such as being sexually or physically abused by their ain parents, brothers, or relations ( Knowles and Cole 1990 ) . Due to the high grade of down pregnant adult females and female parents, the figure of female p erversion besides increases. Discoursing how negative experiences or familial factors could take to female perversion is critical in footings of a better apprehension of this subject. Therefore, this paper will place important factors that could trip female perversion after discoursing the construct of female perversion. In relation to violent female parents, the thought that idealisation of maternity can take to denial of female perversion will be critically evaluated. As portion of traveling through the chief treatment, real-life illustrations will be provided in inside informations. Prior to decision, recommended ways on how we could efficaciously equilibrate female perversion related to mental unwellness and legal justness will besides be explained. Sexual maltreatment towards kids or the act of bring downing injury towards her ain organic structure or the kid s organic structure is considered as female perversion in the sense that sexually mistreating her ain kids, bring downing injury towards one s ain organic structure or her kid s organic structure is rather the antonym of the true image of maternity and muliebrity. Welldon ( 1991 ) argues that female perversion is normally expressed by bring downing suicidal harm caused by biological or hormonal upsets that typically affects their generative significance ( Welldon, 1991 ) . Unlike male perversion, research workers highlight that female perversion purposes at doing bodily injury against their ain organic structure or against the objects that they created, including their babes ( Welldon, 1991 ; Springer-Kremser et Al. 2003 ) . Motz ( 2001 ) acknowledges that there are many ways in which female perversion could do physical injury towards her ain organic structure. Since perve rse adult females place their ain organic structure as their female parents organic structure, perverse adult females are capable of assailing their ain organic structure through self-mutilation or self-starvation ( Motz, 2001 ) . Other marks of perverse behavior include, the act of exhibitionism wherein the adult female shows off her organic structure as a manner of demoing her active sex life and pleasance they receive during reproduction and sexual promiscuousness. In the instance of perverse female parents, Banning ( 1989 ) besides suggests that they attack their ain kids as a manner of showing their violent retaliation ( Banning, 1989 ) . Assorted research workers note that perverse female parents are frequently guilty of parent induced unwellness, infanticide, improper abortion, and hiding a birth ( Fraser, 2008 ; Spinelli 2004 ; Tekell, 2001 ) . Fraser ( 2008 ) argues that perversion of maternity refers to rear induced unwellness to a kid, which might be caused either straight or indirectly of a kid s biological female parent, where female parent purposefully maintain the unwellness in order to keep an image of the ideal maternity. Writer farther notes that such attention giving and idealization of a maternity function produces a female parent a sense of ego satisfaction which frequently compensates her ain childhood losingss and depresses painful memories of the yesteryear. Researcher suggests that adult females and work forces care developments understand otherwise: men-develop in signifier of separation, while women- in relation to , where fond regards to others allow adult females to develop a sense of authorization and better ego cognition. In relation to perverse female parents, as Fraser ( 2008 ) notes, health of a kid is frequently greeted as menace of maternity, a loss of individuality as health professional and i deal female parent ( Fraser, 2008 ) . Spinelli ( 2005 ) suggests that infanticide instances normally occurs when the female parent abandon their baby in out-of-door topographic points in order him or her to decease from hypothermia, carnal onslaught, hungriness, or desiccation ( Spinelli, 2005 ) . In some instances, as Spinelli ( 2004 ) high spots, infanticide can besides happen by deliberately smothering the baby utilizing a pillow or submerging the baby in a bathing tub ( Spinelli, 2004 ) . Spinelli ( 2004 ) and Tekell ( 2001 ) argue that regardless of whether maternal infanticide instances happened because of postpartum mental unwellness or psychosis, schizophrenic disorder, or strictly because of disregard on the portion of the female parent or carer, infanticide outside the construct of mental unwellness is clearly a offense under the jurisprudence ( Spinelli, 2004 ; Tekell,2001 ) . Postpartum mental unwellness or psychosis is a sort of mental unwellness that can happen because of excessively much blood flow that passes through the encephalon ( Meyer et al, 1999 ; Cox, 1988 ) . In some instances, as Lambie ( 2001 ) high spots, the pattern of lactation could go a justification for mental perturbations among female parents who has merely given birth to a babe ( Lambie, 2001 ) . Fraser ( 2008 ) besides argues that biological and hormonal instabilities cause important alterations in the temper such as agitation, craze, and psychotic beliefs on the portion of the female parents ( Fraser, 2008 ) . Aside from biological or hormonal upsets, other common factors that can bring forth female perversion, as research workers suggest, include the early exposure to maternal maltreatment and disregard, alcohol addiction, the usage of illegal drugs, and stress related to socio-economic jobs ( Barnett, 2006 ; Motz, 2001 ) . Peter ( 2008 ) suggests that when an stripling miss is physically or sexually abused or neglected in the yesteryear, the hereafter relationship of the abused might take to confusion between the appropriate and inappropriate sexual activity, particularly if the relationship is an opprobrious 1. Since the negative experience with adult male could farther damage her self-image and cognitive operation, the victim s ability to go adept female parent could besides be negatively affected ( Peter, 2008 ) . Barnett ( 2006 ) besides notes that early childhood experiences for a immature miss who failed to have emotional support from female parents and male parents would turn up feeling devastated about her life. Because of their strong desire to arise, some adult females may stop up going unwed female parents merely to turn out their muliebrity or their ability to go more superior to another individual in this instance, their ain kids ( Barnett,2006 ) . In line with this, other surveies, Barne tt ( 2006 ) and Welldon ( 1991 ) , highlight that immature misss who were sexually abused or emotionally deprived by their female parents frequently end up every bit cocottes as a manner of retaliation. Writers besides suggest that such female parents with psychological instability will deliberately bring down physical injury on their kids ( Barnett, 2006 ; Welldon, 1991 ) . Welldon ( 1991 ) besides explains that perverse female parents can either be as facilitators person who is capable of accommodating to the kid s demands ; or as regulators the type of female parent who anticipate that their kid is capable of accommodating to their ain demands, which the 2nd type taking more to physical maltreatment of kids ( Welldon, 1991 ) . Society in general perceives female parents as function theoretical accounts to their kids, loving, fostering. As portion of being a function theoretical account, perfect female parents should forbear from the usage of illegal substances, intoxicant and smoke dependences. Aside from educating and fostering their kids to go unsloped citizens, ideal female parents are expected to do their kids happy and confident by transfusing merely acceptable values in their heads. In other words, the functions of ideal female parents are non limited in feeding their kids but besides to do them experience that they are loved by non being selfish. Every adult female, on the other manus, desires to be accepted socially as a good female parent. In line with the strong desire to be accepted in society, the act of idealising maternity may take to denial of female perversion. As it was highlighted before, perverse female parents are capable of sexually mistreating or physically harming their ain kids due of their negative childhood experiences. By purely idealising the construct of maternity in society, there is a strong potency for perverse female parents that they will deny take parting in any signifiers of such actions. As mentioned in the old statement, assorted research workers suggest that female perversion can be noted when there is alarmingly disturbed relationship between the female parent and her baby, female parent and boy, or female parent and girl ( Peter, 2008 ; Hetherton, 1999 ; Banning, 1989 ) . In line with this, adult females who have been neglected or deprived of love in the yesteryear or were sexually abused, could do them capable of sexually mistreating their ain kids. Although the possibility wherein perverse female parents could sexually mistreat their kids is high, Motz ( 2001 ) high spots that these types of instances are frequently under-reported because of the complex relationship or emotional bond that is present between female parents and kids and common thoughts about maternity in society. Due to absence of significant groundss, it would be hard to turn out that a perverse female parent is really penalizing their kids physically or sexually particularly when the kid is exc essively immature to speak and support themselves against their opprobrious female parents ( Motz, 2001 ) . As a portion of idealising maternity and muliebrity, the thought wherein perverse female parents are mistreating their ain kids physically or sexually is wholly non acceptable within our society, cause female parents in general are seen as lovingness, loving and fostering. Harmonizing to Cavaglion ( 2008 ) cultural perceptual experiences of maternity dramas a critical function in society and suggests that society stereotypes female parents who kill, because they deviate from normal moral criterions of behavior. Writer farther notes that such female parents are portrayed frequently as mad, insane and victims, and claims that society sees their Acts of the Apostless of permeation influenced by mental upsets and as a consequence of male force against them. Such female parents in community eyes, as research worker concludes, hence can non be held accountable for their aberrant act ions ( Cavaglion, 2008 ) . As a consequence of idealising maternity and muliebrity, there is a strong possibility wherein perverse adult females are more likely to deny their act of perversion in order to protect themselves from being stigmatized, humiliated and judged by the populace as mad, irresponsible, immoral, and/or cruel female parents. For this ground, Hetherton ( 1999 ) and Banning ( 1989 ) argue that idealisation of adult females could ensue to more under-reported instances particularly with respects to condemnable issues wherein female culprits would sexually mistreat their kids ( Hetherton, 1999 ; Banning, 1989 ) . Researchers findings suggest that adult females s yesteryear and unsolved experiences of being sexually abused during her childhood yearss can do them vulnerable to lower status composite which makes her an easy victim of opprobrious work forces ( Springer-Kremser et al. 2003 ) . In line with this, a compelling illustration is drawn by Motz ( 2001 ) where a perverse female parent wherein becomes as an accoutrement of sexually mistreating her ain kids, when the hubby coerced the married woman to promote 7 and 10 year-olds, sexually abused victims, to masturbate the hubby while the married woman was taking images ( Motz, 2001 ) . We can propose that in instance these two kids refused to take part in the sexual activity with the male parent, either the female parent or the male parent, would physically harm the kids for noncompliance. There is besides a strong inclination for both parents to endanger these kids non to state other people about the sexual activity that happened between th em. Given that the community purely idealizes the construct of maternity, perverse female parents will continuously deny their willingness to mistreat their kids physically or sexually as a agency of protecting themselves from going involved in kid maltreatment instances. Based on the given illustration, it is possible on the portion of the perverse female parent to claim that it was the hubby who made her encourage kids to execute illicit sexual activities with the twosome. For this ground, we may propose, it is the hubby who is more likely to confront the legal effects or requital for prosecuting kids to take part in illegal sexual activities as compared to the perverse female parent. Harmonizing to Welldon ( 1991 ) , perversion in maternity is possible when society denies mother s perversion and idealises being a female parent. Author besides argues that due to sexual or societal political relations, some adult females are non treated as human existences, because they were non bo rn as work forces. By non leting adult females to experience as human existences, there is a greater opportunity wherein of emotional instability taking female parent to ensue in perverse maternity ( Welldon, 1991 ) . Sing the instances of maternal infanticide, Lambie ( 2001 ) explained that the jurisprudence in UK has a typical statute law with respects to the act of killing babies and immature kids by their ain female parents. In line with this, adult females who are proved victims of biological or hormonal perturbation caused by immatureness or unfavorable fortunes such as colza instances are qualified for settled jurisprudence. For this ground, adult females who are guilty of maternal infanticide are free from the decease punishment. Under the Infanticide legislative act of 1922 and 1938, female parents who are guilty of killing their baby or kids because of postpartum mental unwellnesss or psychosis are exempted from capital penalty related to slaying. Author farther acknowledge us the legal charges that are most likely to be imposed on the accused female parents will be reduced to manslaughter provided that there is adequate biological grounds to turn out that the accused female parents are traveling through postpartum-related mental upset. Alternatively of directing the accused female parents to prison, perverse female parents who happened to be convicted of killing their babies due to post-partum syndromes are mandated to set about hospitalization for necessary interventions ( Lambie, 2001 ) . In relation to the instance of maternal infanticide, Card ( 2002 ) explained that evil actions can be classified as either unbearable injury or blameworthy error ( Card, 2002:4 ) . Since scruples plays a important factor which enables us to move righteous workss and avoid those that are evil, each individual should be free from mental unwellnesss when judging whether a human activity is morally inculpable or evil ( Card, 2002 ) . Card ( 2002 ) suggest that those adult females who are enduring from postnatal mental unwellness or psychosis, should non be classified as perverse female merely because they are non mentally capable of finding what is right from incorrect at the c lip they had committed a offense. Infanticide caused by postpartum mental unwellness and psychosis should neer be considered as an knowing offense. For this ground, the degree of legal penalty imposed on postpartum female parents who are accused of infanticide should be different from perverse female parents who are guilty of deliberately bring downing physical or sexual injury on their kids ( Card, 2002 ) . West and Lichtenstein ( 2006 ) besides draw a ample illustration of criminalisation of Andrea Yates instance that drowned her five kids in the bathing tub and was ab initio positive for capital slaying, which subsequently on was found guilty of insanity and finally was moved to province mental infirmary. Writers argue that society s myths and perceptual experiences about perfect maternity play a dominant function in adult females s lives and stigmatise those whose behavior is unnatural and aberrant. Aside from tabu and stigma, society besides do non take into history the functio n of adult females s day-to-day activities, which as writers argue, lead to dual displacement both at place and at work which frequently result in emotional and physical emphasis and could intensify to slay of a kid ( West and Lichtenstein 2006 ) . Although it is possible that the act of idealising maternity could take to denial of female perversion, it is by no uncertainty that justness will ever predominate. Even though perverse female parents are capable of denying the act of harming their kids physically or sexually, the local governments can still garner concrete groundss from the victims of kid maltreatment in order to convict preserve female parents who are guilty of perpetrating a offense. Perverse female parents may continuously deny their act of female perversion, as in Andrea Yates instance due to delusional ideas about Satan, but they are non free from being lawfully punished for their socially unacceptable behavior. Lambie ( 2001 ) suggests that when maternal infanticide is classified by head-shrinkers as a signifier of postpartum mental unwellness or psychosis, suspected female parents who are positive for postnatal mental unwellness or psychosis should be given the right to have psychiatric intervention ( Lambie, 2001 ) . In line with this, Spinelli ( 2004 ) extremely recommended the demand to do usage of formal DSM-IV diagnostic standards when size uping a suspected female parent for killing her baby and make up ones minding for the degree of penalty to be imposed on mentally sick individual ( Spinelli,2004 ) . Sing the fact, as Hetherton ( 1999 ) high spots, that idealisation of adult females could ensue to more under-reported instances particularly with respects to condemnable issues wherein female culprits would sexually mistreat a kid, criminologists together with the aid of societal workers and school instructors should continuously educate kids refering ways on how they can protect them selves from opprobrious parents including issues related to perverse female parents. By learning the victims of sexually and physically opprobrious parents on how they can describe such instances to the governments, the figure of victimization caused by perverse adult females may more likely to diminish over clip ( Hetherton, 1999 ) . Barnett ( 2006 ) and Motz ( 2001 ) , as noted antecedently, suggest that the factors which can trip female perversion include hormonal instabilities doing mental unwellness, the early exposure to maternal maltreatment and disregard, alcohol addiction, the usage of illegal drugs, and stress related to socio-economic jobs ( Barnett,2006 ; Motz, 2001 ) . For these grounds, the sort of penalty imposed on adult females who are convicted of slaying their kids varies on instance to instance footing. Wilczynski ( 1997 ) notes that, unlike work forces, the cosmopolitan feature of ideal adult females is inactive by nature and any masculine behavior, such as aggression, psychological and physiological maltreatment is frequently seen as unnatural- adult females are incapable to move in such ways. Since the populace s perceptual experience of adult females is characterized by muliebrity, there is a lesser opportunity wherein perverse adult females and female parents will be accused of bring downi ng physical and emotional injury on their kids. This is one of the chief grounds why it has been a common legal pattern in the United Kingdom that adult females who are found guilty of killing their ain kids are most likely to have lesser penalty as compared to work forces ( Wilczynski, 1997 ) . Up to the present clip, there is the ongoing state of affairs wherein perverse adult females and female parents are sexually mistreating both male and female kids. Since the instances of female culprits are frequently left unreported due to common myths and beliefs that female parents can non harm their kids and considered by society and statistics as rare, there is a hazard that the figure of perverse female and female parents who are on the loose will continuously mistreat kids either sexually or physically ( Peter, 2008 ) . As Raitt and Zeedyk ( 2004 ) suggest there is an highly thin line that separates guiltless adult females from perverse adult females who are guilty of slaying or physi cally harming their ain kids. Sing the fact that idealisation of maternity can enable perverse adult females and female parents who has merely given birth to a kid to misdirect the governments by moving similar to female parents with postnatal mental upsets, criminologists should take it as a challenge to concentrate on finding the truth by garnering concrete groundss that will turn out whether or non perverse adult females or perverse female parents are guilty of a offense. To forestall false accusals or incorrect judgement, it is necessary on the portion of criminologists to do usage of medicine intercession such as necropsy in order to find whether the decease of an baby was purpose or simply caused by unaccountable infant decease syndrome ( Raitt and Zeedyk 2004 ) .

Mirrors by Lucy Grealy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Mirrors by Lucy Grealy - Essay Example While she was 9 years, Grealy suffered jaw cancer therefore forcing a part of her right side jaw to be removed. She underwent 30 surgeries as a way of reconstructing her face and so in her story mirror, she talks about the perceptions and obsessions people have of beauty which demonstrates how the society at large is. She had the belief that if the surgeries would eventually fully reconstruct her face, she could be happy as she would be a normal person just like the rest of the world. In an article written by Michelle Wittle inside the mind of a writer she talks about Grealy’s article. Wittle talks positively about the manner in which Grealy’s article is talking about the challenges people go though in their day to day life as a result of their self image. She puts emphasis on the way people define the lives they live in terms of what they see in the mirror. Wittle is proud of the way Grealy at last is able to face her worst fears and looks in the mirror seeing positive things. â€Å"I am a big victim of this theory† (Wittle, 2010). Wittle can relate to Grealy’s story as she herself has let other people define her according to her looks; or how she should live her life just because they say so. She therefore does not condemn Grealy because of the fears she faced with her self image. She compares herself to Grealy by saying that she herself has learnt of how to soul-search herself and live her life instead of living the way others want to â€Å"Like Grealy, I am learning to look at myself on the inside† (Wittle 2010).

Meditations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Meditations - Essay Example This is after the book was circulated for a collection of objection upon which he provided his replies. Most of the people who read the meditations did not agree with some of the philosophical theories built by Descartes. Therefore, this brings about some kind of disagreement between Descartes and one or more objectives that he raises. As such, these objections and replies will be evaluated to gauge their adequacy. Descartes wrote the meditations to show that he had previously been mistaken in relation to things that he had initially thought to be certain. He, therefore, makes a decision to sweep away all of the perception that he had built in the past by constructing his knowledge from ground upwards. In turn, the only ideas that he was to accept as true were those that had been confirmed to be absolutely certain. It is his senses that helped him to get all that he had thought previously. Although his senses can also be deceiving, it only happens for tiny objects or those that are f ar away. He ultimately realizes that he cannot cast any doubt upon his own existence (Garber, 2003). Position of Descartes in the Meditations In the Meditations Descartes provides a means for first philosophy hence the beginning of modern day philosophy. From the book, he starts by attempting to doubt everything. He also builds up from those things that are likely to be known with certainty. He bases his first mediation on skeptical doubts by defining knowledge in terms of doubt. With this, he makes a distinction between rigorous knowledge or scientia and the other lesser grades of convictions or persuasio. He makes a clear distinction between the human soul and body. In this, he demonstrates the existence of God and the immortality of the soul and questions how certain knowledge is. As such, his position is that people should establish what is likely to be known for sure. In order to make out what is claimed in the sciences and form a firm structure from them, it is important to ma ke a new foundation. This is because of the way he connects with the development of knowledge from the senses. This kind of information is what should be taken as true and certain (Garber, 2003). It is thus important to have a clear and distinct perception in order to secure knowledge. He thus develops a new state of mind conception by stating that the mental states are similar to what it represents. Therefore, the subject of the objections is that there should be no belief in things that are absolutely certain. In particular, the objection being made is that people only think about things that know the mind in a clear and distinct way. He claims that senses are not the source of knowledge but a means through which individuals practically move through the world. This makes the mind of human beings sufficient enough to know God. However, the reply to this objective is that people must work hard to understand their bodies. It is because the mind and body are extremely distinct and hav e nothing in common. With this, there must be the presence of doubt to gain more knowledge (Descartes, 1993). In my opinion, this reply is highly adequate because it appears to take a rational stance. It brings out the two truths that show the philosophical evidence on the existence of God, as opposed to the authority of scriptures. First Meditation: What can be called to doubt: the reliability of senses For the first meditation by Descartes which is about the reliability of the senses, he claims that the human is a complete form of spirituality. According to

The Current Status of Women in Middle East Countries Essay Example for Free

The Current Status of Women in Middle East Countries Essay Part I: Reasons why women are reaching a stagnant point in the Arab countries and how this could possibly change:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   According to feminists, the current status of women in Middle East countries is strongly attributed to state policies.   Scholarly information from studies conducted on the status of Middle East women have indicated that the changes that have taken place in the legal status of women and in their social placement in society have very much been determined by the changes taking place in political constitution of various states and regimes. The status of women and gender relations have also been equally determined by other factors like class structure, economic and demographic characteristic Religion can also not be ruled out as it has tremendous influence on the system of governance in many countries in this region.   Revolutionary projects carried out in Iran and Afghanistan but which did not yield good results act as a clear guideline on the status of women in Arab countries.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The societies in the Arab world are predominantly patriarchal.   The role of a woman as wife and mother is still held with a lot of esteem in these societies.   Women are reproducers, educators of children and socialisers whereby they are responsible for implementing societal and cultural values in the young ones. These societies are also predominantly Islamic, a religion that still holds the family as the most fundamental unit of society and places greet responsibility on women about raising devout Muslims as well as transmitting cultural values.   Child bearing is therefore the central labor activity for the females while the men are responsible for the general upkeep of the family.   The place of the woman in a Muslim society therefore remains the home and the activities surrounding it. Muslim family law also gives the male members of the society extensive control over key decisions affecting the life of the women under their control for example in issues concerning marriage, education, business and mobility. Women in the Arab countries are still subjected to some form of subordination to the males and restrictive codes of behavior that govern their lives. There is sex segregation towards women and family honor is closely associated with female virtue.   As a result any attempts to change family virtues or the family structure has often met with a lot of resistance in the Arab world especially from revolutionary groups that have been operating under the concept of defending Islam such as the Taliban in Afghanistan.   Tribal-Islamist opposition groups also play a major role in opposing any attempts to change the status of women in these societies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the Arab countries, marriage is still predominantly an agreement between families rather than between two individuals who hold equal rights in society. A husband has absolute rights over his wife’s body and such issues as marital rape are not recognized. Women are therefore still under male control and any attempt to achieve in their social status is viewed as resistance to made dominance.   The community has tremendous influence over a woman’s life in Arab countries a factor that can be seen in the societies refusal to do away with the veil even at a time when civilization has advanced in these countries.   As a result, the veil has widely been viewed as a civilizational threat to the position of the modern woman in society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Wars that characterize several Arab nations have also been a threat to the status of women.   This is because even after their husbands have been recruited and probably died in war, women especially in the poor backgrounds cannot freely venture out to fed for their families and they still have to rely on male members of the family such as the older sons. This has subjected the women and their children to a lot of unnecessary suffering. There has also been a tendency in these nations to limit the political exposure of women, a factor that has resulted from the concept of male dominance in these societies.   In such a way, it has been difficult for women to push for change as society still holds views that their position should be in the house.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A lot can be done to assist the women and improve their status in society.   Women for example should be given freedom in education.  Ã‚   This is because modernization demands more labor in high profile jobs. Wars should be a great lesson and women should be given a chance of being economically stable to avoid desperate situations in the event of the death of the family’s breadwinner during war.   Education will also give women better chances of employment and produce women who are able to strongly advocate for change in society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Because family law in Arab nations greatly determines state and legal policies relating to gender and family matters,   perhaps these laws should be reviewed to give the women more influence in the family and society.   Various Arab governments should also give attention to demands by women on the improvement of their political, civil and social rights. Part II: Authoritative governments and the rise of fundamental Muslim groups   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the Arab world, the main religion is predominantly Islam, a religion that has played a major role in determining the political, social and civil structures in these nations. Religious and state matters are intertwined in such a way that it becomes difficult to make a clear distinction between the two. Islamic law applies to every aspect of life in the Arab nations ranging from matters related to everyday life, to state matters such as the system of governance and even foreign relations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   With modernization, the Muslim world has come into contact with the Western world, an aspect that has led to mixed reactions in different Arab nations. This is as a result of the major economic, political and social-cultural developments that have resulted from this type of contact. In most of the Muslim countries the political systems are based on Islamic laws derived from the Quran and this has resulted in the concept of Islamic States through which Arab countries want to exert their influence and change the Western culture to conform to Islamic way of life. There has also been widespread resistance to Western influence and these factors have led to the rise of Islamic fundamentalism. A strive has risen among the Arabs between those who feel that Islam should determine the political culture of the Arab nations and those who prefer secular governments that have institutions modeled on Western governments. Islamic fundamentalist feel that Arab governments have established state constitutions that are too compliant with other religions or doctrines. It is therefore the ultimate goal of Islamic political fundamentalists to overthrow these secular states in a bid to achieve national dominance in the political system.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Islamic fundamentalist movements have been modeled upon the Muslim Brotherhood of Egypt began in 1928 that provided such movements with directives on the way forward in achieving political dominance through the implementation of the Sharia law. Even though composed of a minority of Muslims, Islamic fundamentalists have had varied political achievements in various nations. Good examples of such groups are the Wahhabi in Saudi Arabia and the Taliban in Afghanistan where strict Islamic law has been used to eradicate any form of Western influence. In Sudan, the efforts by the Muslim brotherhood to uphold Sharia law since independence in that nation in 1956 has led to a long civil war between the Islamic North and the Christain south.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Egypt, the Muslim Brotherhood captures 20 percent of the seats in civic elections held in the later part of 2005. Turkey is ruled by an Islamist party that appears to accommodate democratic ideals. But since the September 11 attacks in the United States, growing concern has risen within the international community over the current situation in the Arab countries regarding religious reform and the prospect of Islamist fundamentalists having a share in political power. This is because of extremist groups that have resulted to terrorism as a means of achieving their goals. A good number of the countries in the Middle East are governed by autocratic regimes opposed to these Islamist movements. An attempt by such groups to gain political power has often been suppressed by denying them a popular vote in the governments and by exercising brutality against their leaders and followers. This is because of the tendency by these groups to result to violence as a means of airing their grievances and achieving their goals. Such violence has led to abduction of Western hostages, bomb attacks on the US Embassies in countries like Kenya and Tanzania and the September 11 attack in the US.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Islamic fundamentalists   originally aimed at achieving political goals through peaceful means but the refusal of Islamic governments to recognize their existence and the attempt to suppress these movements is what may have led to the emergence of extremist groups. The Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt has however maintained peaceful means in dealing with the government an aspect that has helped the movement to rise into a political party with a strong following. The future of such groups is however threatened by the fight against terrorism and whether they will achieve in maintaining strict Muslim states is yet to be determined by the course that political events in the Arab world will take and the relations between these Arab nations and the West. Part III The lack of unification between the Arab countries has its benefits in regards to Preservation of culture but it is a hindrance to their potential political force Culture in any community plays a role of utmost importance particularly in preserving the identity of any community. Like everywhere else in the world, the movement of people in and out of the Muslim world has increased cultural integration. Colonial occupation in the Arab countries served to expand these cultural influences bringing in the process of westernization. However the Arab countries have more than any other group of nations succeeded in keeping both external and internal influences at minimal levels. These countries have thus managed to retain their individual cultures to large extent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   From Egypt to Syria, the rise of Arabism was largely as a result of resistance to the colonial occupation mainly the British occupation. This growing force promised to unite Arab nations on the principles of nationalism as well as religion of Islam. This resulted in the expansion of state, missionary and private education (Moaddel, M., 53). However the cultural distance between the components of the Arab world would not allow for significant integration. This has to this day served to retain the cultural composition of the member countries. The lack of unity in the Arab countries has therefore served to preserve culture.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The biggest loss that is as a result of this disunity is however the loss of political forces that would have defined the Arab countries as a force to be reckoned with. The leadership’s radical difference in ideologies has made any meaningful integration difficult. A phenomenon akin to divide and rule has therefore been employed repeatedly by the western powers to further influence the political direction in the Arab World. This has worked against the region since it still remains on the shadows when political force is called for in order to change direction of the world.       Works Cited: Are Knusden. Political Islam in the Middle East R 2003:3 Chr. Michelsen Institute Development Studies and Human Rights Moaddel, Mansoor. Islamic Modernism, Nationalism and Fundamentalism. Chicago. University of Chicago Press.